VI．EXPLANATION OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS
1. Introduction
For each use of each word in this dictionary, grammar information is provided. For a very few words, such as abbreviations, contractions and some words of foreign origin, no grammar is given, because the words do not belong to any word class, or are used so freely that every example could be given a different word class, e.g. AD, ditto, must've.
The grammar information that is given is of three types:
- the word class of the word: e.g. PHRASAL VERB, N-COUNT, ADJ, QUANT
- restrictions or extensions to its behaviour, compared to other words of that word class: e.g. usu passive, usu sing, also no det
- the patterns that the word most frequently occurs in: e.g. N of n, ADJ that, ADV with v
For all word classes, the patterns are given immediately before the examples they a ccompany.
The word class of the word being explained is in CAPITAL LETTERS. The order of items in a pattern is the order in which they normally occur in a sentence. Words in italics are words (not word classes) that occur in the pattern. Alternatives are separated by a slash (/).
2. Word classes
ADJ
An adjective can be graded or ungraded, or be in the comparative or the superlative form, e.g.He has been absent from his desk for two weeks ...the most accurate description of the killer to date... The eldest child was a daughter called Fatiha.
Adjective patterns
ADJ n The adjective is always used before a noun, e.g. ...a governmental agency.
usu ADJ n The adjective is usually used before a noun. It is sometimes used after a link verb.
v-link ADJ The adjective is used after a link verb such as be or feel, e.g. He felt unwell. Adjectives with this label are sometimes used in other positions such as after the object of a verb such as make or keep, but never before a noun.
usu v-link ADJ The adjective is usually used after a link verb. It is sometimes used before a noun.
ADJ after v The adjective is used after a verb that is not a link verb, e.g. I wore a white dress and was barefoot.
n ADJ The adjective comes immediately after a noun, e.g. between archaeology proper and science-based archaeology.
det ADJ The adjective comes immediately after a determiner and before any other adjectives, and sometimes comes before numbers, e.g. You owe a certain person a sum of money. If the dictionary does not show that an adjective is used only or mainly in the pattern ADJ n and v-link ADJ, this means that the adjective is used freely in both patterns.
These main adjective patterns are sometimes combined with other patterns.
ADV
An adverb can be graded or ungraded, or be in the comparative or the superlative form. e.g. Much of our behavior is biologically determined... I'll work hard... Inflation is below 5% and set to fall further ...those areas furthest from the coast.
AUX
An auxiliary verb is used with another verb to add particular meanings to that verb, for example, to form the continuous aspect or the passive voice, or to form negatives and interrogatives. The verbs be, do, get and have have some senses in which they are auxiliary verbs.
COLOR
A color word refers to a color. It is like an adjective, e.g. the blue sky... The sky was blue, and also like a noun, e.g. She was dressed in red ...several shades of yellow.
COMB
A combining form is a word which is joined with another word, usually with a hyphen, to form compounds, e.g. strawberry-flavored, buisiness-speak. The word class of the compound is also given, e.g. COMB in ADJ, COMB in N-UNCOUNT.
CONJ
A conjunction usually links elements of the same grammatical type, such as two words or two clauses, e.g. She and Simon had already gone... I sat on the chair to unwrap the package while he stood by.
CONVENTION
A convention is a word or a fixed phrase which is used in conversation, for example when greeting someone, apologizing, or replying, e.g. hello, sorry, no comment.
DET
A determiner is a word that is used at the beginning of a noun group, e.g. a tray, more time, some books, this amount. It can also be used to say who or what something belongs or relates to e.g. his face, my house, or to begin a question e.g. Whose car were they in?
EXCLAM
An exclamation is a word or phrase which is spoken suddenly, loudly, or emphatically in order to express a strong emotion such as shock or anger. Exclamations are often followed by exclamation marks, e.g. good heavens!, Ouch!
FRACTION
A fraction is used in numbers, e.g. five and a half, two and two thirds; before of and a noun group, e.g. half of the money, a third of the children, an eighth of Russia's grain; after in or into, e.g. in half, into thirds. A fraction is also used like a count noun, e.g. two halves, the first quarter of the year.
MODAL
A modal is used before the infinitive form of a verb, e.g. You may go. In questions, it comes before the subject, e.g. Must you speak? In negatives, it comes before the negative word, e.g. They would not like this. It does not inflect, for example, it does not take an -s in the third person singular, e.g. She can swim.
N-COUNT
A
count noun has a plural form, usually made by adding -
s. When it is singular, it must have a determiner in front of it, such as
the, her, or
such, e.g.
My cat is getting fatter...She's a good friend.
N-COUNT-COLL
A collective count noun is a count noun which refers to a group of people or things. It behaves like a count noun, but when it is in the singular form it can be used with either a singular or plural verb, e.g. Their audience are much younger than the average...The British audience has a huge appetite for serials...Audiences are becoming more selective.
N-FAMILY
A family noun refers to a member of a family, e.g. father, mommy, and granny. Family nouns are count nouns which are typically used in the singular, and usually follow a possessive determiner. They are also vocative nouns. They are also proper nouns, used with no determiner, e.g. My mommy likes marzipan... Tell them I didn't do it, Mommy...Mommy's always telling me I'm too old for dolls.
N-IN-NAMES
The noun occurs in names of people, things, or institutions.
N-MASS
A mass noun typically combines the behavior of both count and uncount nouns in the same sense. It is used like an uncount noun to refer to a substance. It is used like a count noun to refer to a brand or type, e.g. Rinse in cold water to remove any remaining detergent...Wash it in hot water with a good detergent...We used several different detergents in our stain-removal tests.
N-PLURAL
A plural noun is always plural, and is used with plural verbs. If a pronoun is used to stand for the noun, it is a plural pronoun such as they or them, e.g. These clothes are ready to wear...He expressed his condolences to the families of people who died in the incident. Plural nouns which end in -s usually lose the -s when they come in front of another noun, e.g. pants, pants leg. If they refer to a single object which has two main parts, such as jeans and glasses, the expression a pair of is sometimes used, e.g. a pair of jeans. This is shown as N-PLURAL:also a pair of N.
N-PROPER
A proper noun refers to one person, place, thing, or institution, and begins with a capital letter. Many proper nouns are used without a determiner, e.g. ...Earth; some must be used with the, and this is indicated: N PROPER, the N, e.g. the UK.
N-PROPER-COLL
A collective proper noun is a proper noun which refers to a group of people or things. It can be used with either a singular or a plural verb, e.g. The Senate is expected to pass the bill shortly...The Houses of Parliament are the British parliament.
N-SING
A singular noun is always singular, and needs a determiner, e.g. ...to respect the environment...Maureen was the epitome of sophistication. When only a or the is used, this is indicated: N-SING: a N or N-SING: , the N, e.g. The traffic slowed to a crawl...We dropped to the ground.
N-SING-COLL
A collective singular noun is a singular noun which refers to a group of people or things. It behaves like a singular noun, but can be used with either a singular or plural verb, e.g. The enemy were pursued for two miles...Their defense has now conceded 12 goals in six games.
N-TITLE
A title noun is used to refer to someone who has a particular role or position. Titles come before the name of the person and begin with a capital letter, e.g. The Chancellor of the Exchequer.
N-UNCOUNT
An
uncount noun refers to things that are not normally counted or considered to be individual items. Uncount nouns do not have a plural form, and are used with a singular verb. They do not need determiners, e.g.
...an area of outstanding natural beauty.
N-UNCOUNT-COLL
A collective uncount noun is an uncount noun which refers to a group of people or things. It behaves like an uncount noun, but can be used with either a singular or plural verb, e.g. ...Hearts is one of the four suits in a pack of playing cards... Hearts are trumps.
N-VAR
A
variable noun typically combines the behavior of both count and uncount nouns in the same sense (see
N-COUNT,
N-UNCOUNT). The singular form occurs freely both with and without determiners. Variable nouns also have a plural form, usually made by adding -
s. Some variable nouns when used like uncount nouns refer to abstract things like
hardship and
technology, and when used like count nouns refer to individual examples or instances of that thing, e.g.
Technology is changing fast...They should be allowed to wait for cheaper technologies to be developed. Others refer to objects which can be mentioned either individually or generally, like
potato and
salad: you can talk about
a potato,
potatoes, or
potato.
N-VAR-COLL
A collective variable noun is a variable noun which refers to a group of people or things. It behaves like a variable noun, but when it is singular it can be used with either a singular or a plural verb, e.g. The management is doing its best to improve the situation.
N-VOC
A vocative noun is used when speaking directly to someone or writing to them. Vocative nouns do not need a determiner, but some may be used with a possessive determiner, e.g. Thank you, darling...How are you, my darling?
NEG see PRON-INDEF-NEG, PRON-NEG, QUANT-NEG
NUM
A number is a word such as three and hundred. Numbers such as one, two, three are used like determiners, e.g. three bears; like adjectives, e.g. the four horsemen; like pronouns, e.g. She has three cases and I have two; and like quantifiers, e.g. Six of the boys stayed behind. Numbers such as hundred, thousand, million always follow a determiner or another number, e.g. two hundred people, the thousand horsemen, She has a thousand dollars and I have a million, A hundred of the boys stayed behind.
ORD
An ordinal is a type of number. Ordinals are used like adjectives, e.g. He was the third victim; like pronouns, e.g. the second of the two teams; like adverbs, e.g. The other team came first; and like determiners, e.g. Fourth place goes to Timmy.
PHRASAL VERB
A phrasal verb consists of a verb and one or more particles e.g. look after, look back, look down on. Some phrasal verbs are reciprocal, link or passive verbs.
PHRASE
Phrases are groups of words which are used together with little variation and which have a meaning of their own, e.g. The emergency services were working against the clock.
PREDET
A predeterminer is used in a noun group before a, the, or another determiner, e.g. What a terrific idea! ...both the children ...all his life.
PREFIX
A prefix is a letter or group of letters, such as un- or multi-, which is added to the beginning of a word in order to form another word. For example, the prefix un- is added to happy to form unhappy.
PREP
A preposition begins a prepositional phrase and is followed by a noun group or a present participle. Patterns for prepositions are shown in the dictionary only if they are restricted in some way. For example, if a preposition occurs only before a present participle, it is shown as PREP -ing.
PREP-PHRASE
A phrasal preposition is a phrase which behaves like a preposition, e.g. Prices vary according to the quantity ordered.
PRON
Pronouns are used like noun groups, to refer to someone or something that has already been mentioned or whose identity is known, e.g. They produced their own shampoos and hair-care products, all based on herbal recipes...two bedrooms, each with three beds. Some pronouns are further classified, for example as PRON-EMPH, PRON-INDEF, and so on.
PRON-EMPH
Emphatic pronouns are words like all, both, and each, when they are used to emphasize another noun or pronoun, e.g. We each have different needs and interests...I wish you both a good trip.
PRON-INDEF
Indefinite pronouns are words like anyone, anything, everyone, and something, e.g. Why would anyone want that job?...after everything else in his life had changed.
PRON-INDEF-NEG
Negative indefinite pronouns are words like none, no-one, and nothing, e.g. He searched for a sign of recognition on her face, but there was none...Do our years together mean nothing?
PRON-NEG
Negative pronouns are words like neither, e.g. Neither seemed likely to be aware of my absence for long.
PRON-PLURAL
Plural pronouns are the plural personal pronouns, which include we, us, they, and them, e.g. Neither of us forgot about it.
PRON-POSS
A possessive pronouns is used to say who or what something belongs to or relates to. The possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers, ours and theirs, e.g. That wasn't his fault, it was mine...The author can report other people's results which more or less agree with hers.
PRON-RECIP
The reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another, e.g. We looked at each other in silence.
PRON-REFL
Reflexive pronouns are pronouns which are used as the object of a verb or preposition when they refer to the same person or thing as the subject of the verb. They are used in the same positions as other pronouns. The reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves, e.g. I asked myself what I would have done in such a situation...One must apply oneself to the present.
PRON-REFL-EMPH
Emphatic reflexive pronouns are reflexive pronouns which are used for emphasis, often after another pronoun or at the end of a clause, e.g. A wealthy man like yourself is bound to make an enemy or two along the way...The president himself is on a visit to Beijing...I made it myself.
PRON-REL
Relative pronouns are words like which and who, that introduce relative clauses. They are the subject or object of the verb in the relative clause, or the object of a preposition, e.g. ...those who eat out for a special occasion...The largest asteroid is Ceres, which is about a quarter the size of the moon.
PRON-SING
Singular pronouns are the singular personal pronouns, which include I, me, he, him, she, her, it, and one, e.g. He didn't mean to be cruel but I cried my eyes out.
QUANT
A quantifier comes before of and a noun group, e.g. most of the house. If there are any restrictions on the type of noun group, this is indicated: QUANT of def-n means that the quantifier occurs before of and a definite noun group, e.g. Most of the kids have never seen the sea.
QUANT-NEG
Negative quantifiers are words like neither, e.g. Neither of us felt like going out.
QUANT-PLURAL
Plural quantifiers are words like billions and millions which are followed by of and a noun group, e.g. ...for billions of years.
QUEST
A question word is a wh-word that is used to begin a question, e.g.Why didn't he stop me?
SOUND
Sound words are used before or after verbs such as go and say, e.g. Suddenly there was a loud crack.
SUFFIX
A suffix is a letter or group of letters such as -ly or -ness, which is added to the end of a word in order to form a new word, usually of a different word class, e.g. quick, quickly.
V-I
An intransitive verb is one which takes an indirect object or no object, e.g. The problems generally fall into two categories...As darkness fell outside, they sat down to eat.
V-LINK
A
link verb connects a subject and a complement. Most link verbs do not occur in the passive voice, e.g.
be,
become,
taste,
feel.
V-RECIP
Reciprocal verbs describe processes in which two or more people, groups, or things interact mutually: they do the same thing to each other, or participate jointly in the same action or event. Reciprocal verbs are used where the subject is both participants, e.g.
Fred and Sally met...The participants can also be referred to separately, e.g.
Fred met Sally...Fred argued with Sally. These patterns are reciprocal because they also mean that
Sally met Fred and
Sally argued with Fred. Note that many reciprocal verbs can also be used in a way that is not reciprocal. For example,
Fred and Sally kissed is reciprocal, but
Fred kissed Sally is not reciprocal (because it does not mean that Sally also kissed Fred).
V-RECIP-PASSIVE
A passive reciprocal verb behaves like both a passive verb and a reciprocal verb, e.g. He never believed he and Susan would be reconciled.
V-T
A transitive verb is one which takes a direct object, e.g. He mailed me the contract.
V-T PASSIVE
A passive verb occurs in the passive voice only, e.g. The company is rumored to be a takeover target.
V-T/V-I
Some verbs may be transitive or intransitive depending on how they are used, e.g. He opened the window and looked out...The flower opens to reveal a bee.
3. Words and abbreviations used in patterns
In a pattern, the element in capital letters represents the word in the entry. All the other elements are in small letters. Items in italics show the actual word that is used, such as of. Items in roman print show the word class or type of clause that is used. For example:
N of n means that the word being explained is a noun (N), and it is followed in the sentence by the word of and another noun or noun group (n).
ADV adj/adv means that the word being explained is an adverb (ADV), and it is followed in the sentence by an adjective (adj) or (/) another adverb (adv).
When the word in the entry occurs in a pattern, the element in capital letters is N for any kind of noun, ADJ for any kind of adjective, and so on. PHR is used for a phrase, and N is used to represent a noun in a phrase.
4. Words used to structure information in patterns
after： after v means after a verb. The word is used either immediately after the verb, or after the verb and another word or phrase, or in a marked position at the beginning of the clause. For example, the adverb
mildly is used:
immediately after a verb: Have a nice time, dear, and drive cerefully.
after a verb and its object: Use a flash and position the camera carefully.
at the beginning of a clause: Carefully make a cut with a small knife.
The phrase on hold is used:
immediately after a verb: Everything is on hold until we know more.
after a verb and its object: He put his retirement on hold.
also：used with some nouns to show that the word is used in a way that is not typical of that type of noun. For example, also N in pl means that unlike most uncount nouns, this noun also has a plural form and use. Also is used with some adverbs and adjectives to show a pattern that is less common than the other patterns mentioned. For example, usu ADV with v, also ADV adj means that the adverb is usually used with a verb but is also used before an adjective.
before：before v means before a verb. The word is used before the main element in a verb group. For example, the adverb
already is used:
before the whole verb group: those who already know of the delights of skiing.
immediately before the main element in the group: They had already voted for him at the first ballot.
no：used to indicate that a verb is not used in a particular way, for example no passive, or that a singular noun is also used without a determiner: also no det.
oft： used to indicate that a word or phrase often occurs in a particular pattern or behaves in a particular way.
only： used to indicate that a verb is always used in a particular way, for example only cont.
usu： used to indicate that a word or phrase usually occurs in a particular pattern or behaves in a particular way.
with： with is used when the position of a word or phrase is not fixed. This means that the word or phrase sometimes comes before the named word class and sometimes comes after it. For example,
quickly at
quick 1 has the pattern
ADV with v. It occurs:
after the verb:Cussane worked quickly and methodically;
before the verb: She quickly looked away and stared down at her hands.
In addition,with cl is used when the word sometimes occurs at the beginning of the clause, sometimes at the end, and sometimes in the middle. For example, seriously has the pattern ADV with cl. It occurs:
at the beginning of the clause: Seriously, I only watch TV in the evenings.
at the end of the clause: All of us react favorably to those who take our views seriously.
in the middle of the clause: This approach is now seriously out of step with the times.
5. Elements used in patterns
adj：stands for adjective group. This may be one word, such as “happy”, or a group of words, such as “very happy”or “as happy as I have ever been”.
e.g. adj N: read 8... Ben Okri's latest novel is a good read.
adj-compar：stands for comparative adjective. This is used to indicate an adjective group with the comparative form of the adjective.
e.g. ADJ-compar than: old2...Bill was six years older than David.
adj-superl：stands for superlative adjective. It is used to indicate an adjective group with the superlative form of the adjective.
e.g. ADV adj-superl: positively1... This is positively the last chance for the industry to establish such a system.
e.g. ORD adj-superl: second2...the party is still the second strongest in Italy.
adv：stands for adverb group. This may be one word, such as “slowly”, or a group of words, such as “extremely slowly”or “more slowly than ever”.
e.g. adv ADV: else 1... I never wanted to live anywhere else.
amount：means word or phrase indicating an amount of something, such as “a lot”, “nothing”, “three percent”, “four hundred pounds”, “more”, or “much”.
e.g. amount and ADV: above 2...Banks have been charging 25 percent and above for unsecured loans.
brd-neg：stands for broad negative, that is, a clause which is negative in meaning. It may contain a negative element such as “no-one”, “never”, or “hardly”, or may show that it is negative in some other way.
e.g. oft with brd-neg: approve 1...Not everyone approves of the festival.
cl：stands for clause.
e.g. cl ADV: anyway 4...What do you want from me, anyway?
color：means color word, such as “red”, “green”, or “blue”.
e.g. ADJ color: pastel...pastel pink, blue, peach, and green.
compar：stands for comparative form of an adjective or adverb.
e.g. ADV compar: even 2...On television he made an even stronger impact as an interviewer.
cont：stands for continuous. It is used when indicating that a verb is always, usually, or never used in the continuous.
e.g. only cont: die 4...I'm dying for a breath of fresh air.
e.g. no cont: adore 1...She adored her parents and would do anything to please them.
def-n：stands for definite noun group. A definite noun group is a noun group that refers to a specific person or thing, or a specific group of people or things, that is known and identified.
e.g. QUANT of def-n: whole 1...I was cold throughout the whole of my body.
def-pl-n：stands for definite noun group with a noun in the plural.
e.g. QUANT of def-pl-n: many 1...It seems there are not very many of them left in the sea.
det：stands for determiner. A determiner is a word that comes at the beginning of a noun group, such as “the”, “her”, or “those”.
e.g. det ADJ: following 2...We went to dinner the following Monday evening.
-ed：stands for past participle of a verb, such as “decided”, “gone”, or “taken”.
e.g. ADV -ed: freshly...freshly baked bread.
group：stands for noun group, adjective, adverb, or prepositional phrase.
e.g. ADV group: strictly...He seemed fond of her in a strictly professional way.
imper：stands for imperative. It is used when indicating that a verb is always or usually used in the imperative.
e.g. only imper and inf:beware... Beware of being too impatient with others.
inf：stands for infinitive form of a verb, such as “decide”, “go”, or “sit”.
e.g. ADJ to-inf: duty-bound...I felt duty-bound to help.
e.g. ADV to-inf: yet 7: ...She has yet to spend a Christmas with her husband.
-ing：stands for present participle of a verb, such as “deciding”, “going”, or “taking”.
e.g. PREP-ing: before 2...He spent his early life in Sri Lanka before moving to Canada.
it：means an “introductory” or “dummy”it. It does not refer to anything in a previous sentence or in the world; it may refer to what is coming later in the clause or it may refer to things in general.
e.g.oft it v-link ADJ to-inf: nice 7...It's nice to meet you.
n：stands for noun or noun group. If the n element occurs in a pattern with something that is part of a noun group, such as an adjective or another noun, it represents a noun. If the n element occurs in a pattern with something that is not part of a noun group, such as a verb or preposition, it represents a noun group. The noun group can be of any kind, including a pronoun.
e.g. ADJ n: abiding: ...He has a genuine and abiding love of the craft.
names：means names of places or institutions.
e.g.oft in names: requiem 2...a performance of Verdi's Requiem.
neg：stands for negative words, such as “not”, or “never”.
e.g. with neg: dream 6...I wouldn't dream of making fun of you.
n-proper：stands for proper noun. A proper noun is the name of a particular person or thing.
e.g. usu n-proper N: lookalike...a Marilyn Monroe lookalike.
num：stands for number.
e.g. num ADV: odd 3...How many pages was it, 500 odd?.
n-uncount：stands for uncount noun or noun group with an uncount noun. An uncount noun is a noun which has no plural form and which is sometimes used with no determiner.
e.g. QUANT of n-uncount:touch 13...She thought she just had a touch of flu.
ord：stands for ordinal, such as “first”, or “second”.
e.g. ord ADJ n: generation 4...second generation Jamaicans in New York.
passive：stands for passive voice. It is used when indicating that a verb usually or never occurs in the passive voice.
e.g. usu passive: expel 1...More than five-thousand high school students have been expelled for cheating.
pl：stands for plural.
pl-n：stands for noun in the plural, plural noun group, or co-ordinate noun group (two or more noun groups joined by a co-ordinating conjunction).
e.g. PREP pl-n: between 2...I spent a lot of time in the early Eighties travelling between Waco and El Paso.
pl-num：stands for plural number. A plural number is a number which is used only in the plural.
e.g. PREP poss pl-num: in 5...young people in their twenties.
poss：stands for possessive. Possessives which come before the noun may be a possessive determiner, such as “my”, “her”, or “their”, or a possessive formed from a noun group, such as “the horse's”. Possessives which come after the noun are of the form “of n”, such as “of the horse”.
e.g. usu pl, with poss: ancestor 1...our daily lives, so different from those of our ancestors.
prep：stands for prepositional phrase or preposition.
prep PRON: him 1...Is Sam there? Let me talk to him.
pron：stands for pronoun. A pronoun is a word such as “I”, “it”, or “them” which is used like a noun group. It refers to someone or something that has already been mentioned or whose identity is known.
e.g. PREP pron: before 12...Everyone in the room knew it was the single hardest task before them.
pron-indef：stands for indefinite pronoun. An indefinite pronoun is a word like anyone, anything, everyone and something.
e.g. pron-indef ADJ: else 2...I expect everyone else to be truthful.
pron-refl：stands for reflexive pronoun, such as “yourself”, “herself”, or “ourselves”.
e.g. PREP pron-refl: among 9...The girls stood aside, talking among themselves.
quest：stands for question word. A question word is a wh-word such as “what”, “how”, or “why” which is used to begin a question.
e.g. quest ADV: ever 6...Why ever didn't you tell me?
sing：stands for singular.
sing-n：stands for noun in the singular.
e.g. PREDET det sing-n: all 2...She's worked all her life.
supp：stands for supplementary information accompanying a noun. Supplementary information that comes before a noun may be given by a determiner, possessive, adjective, or noun modifier. Supplementary information that comes after the noun may be given by a prepositional phrase or a clause.
e.g. supp N: park 2...a science and technology park.
that：stands for“that”-clause. The clause may begin with the word “that”, but does not necessarily do so.
e.g. usu N that: conviction 1...It is our conviction that a step forward has been taken.
to-inf：stands for to-infinitive form of a verb.
e.g. v-link ADJ to-inf: inclined 2...I am inclined to agree with Alan.
v：stands for
verb or verb group. It is not used to represent a link verb. See also the explanations of
after,
before and
with.
e.g. v PRON: her 1...I told her I had something to say.
e.g. v PREP n: at 10...She opened the door and stood there, frowning at me.
v-link：stands for link verb. A link verb is a verb such as “be” which connects a subject and a complement.
e.g. v-link ADJ: down 3 ...The computer's down again.
wh：stands for wh-word, or clause beginning with a wh-word, such as “what”, “why”, “when”, “how”, “if”, or “whether”.
e.g. ADJ about n/wh: tight-lipped 1...Military officials are still tight-lipped about when their forces will launch a ground offensive.